Environmental Isotopes in the Hydrological Cycle
Principles and Applications
VOLUME III: SURFACE WATER
by
Kazimierz Rozanski Univ. of Minig and Metallurgy, Krakow
Klaus Froehlich previously IAEA, Vienna
Willem G. Mook Groningen Univ., The Netherlands
Contributing Author
W. Stichler, GSF-Institute of Hydrology, Neuherberg, Germany
Preface
CONTENTS
1. BASIC CONCEPTS AND MODELS 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Isotope effects by evaporation 3
1.3 Isotope input to surface water systems 7
1.4 Mean transit time, mixing relationships 9 2 RIVERS
2.1 Hydrological aspects 11
2.1.1 The global hydrological cycle 11
2.1.2 Temporal variations of river discharge 14
2.2 Hydrochemical aspects 15
2.2.1 Dissolved matter 15
2.2.2 Particulate matter 17
2.3 Rivers 19
2.3.1 General aspects 19
2.3.2 Stable isotopes of hydrogen and oxygen 20
2.3.2.1 Variations of 2H and 18O in large rivers 21
2.3.2.2 18O in small rivers and streams: hydrograph separation 29
2.3.3 3H in rivers 32
2.3.4 13C in rivers 39
2.3.5 Sr isotopes in rivers 45 3 ESTUARIES AND THE SEA (by W.G.Mook) 49
3.1 Isotopes in the sea 49
3.1.1 18O and 2H in the sea 49
3.1.2 13C in the sea 51
3.2 Isotopes in estuaries 51
3.2.1 18O and 2H in estuaries 51
3.2.2 13C in estuaries 53
3.3 Estuarine details 54
3.3.1 The relevance of 13d(HCO3¯) versus 13d(CT) 54
3.3.2 Long residence time of the water 55
3.3.2.1 Isotopic exchange with the atmosphere 55
3.3.2.2 Evaporation during the water flow 56 4 LAKES AND RESERVOIRS 59
4.1 Introduction 59
4.1.1 Classification and distribution of lakes 60
4.1.2 Mixing processes in lakes 61
4.2 Water balance of lakes - tracer approach 62
4.2.1 Hydrogen and oxygen isotopes 64
4.2.1.1 Sampling strategy - gathering required information 66
4.2.1.1.1 Precipitation 66
4.2.1.1.2 Surface inflows and outflows 67
4.2.1.1.3 Isotopic composition of lake water 67
4.2.1.1.4 Isotopic composition groundwater inflow 67
4.2.1.1.5 Evaporation flux 68
4.2.1.1.6 Simplified approach 71
4.2.1.1.7 Tracer selection: 18O or 2H 74
4.2.1.2 Uncertainties of the isotope-mass balance approach 74
4.2.1.3 Special cases 75
4.2.1.3.1 Non steady-state systems 76
4.2.1.3.2 Stratified lakes 78
4.2.1.3.3 Interconnected lakes 78
4.2.1.3.4 Large lakes 81
4.2.1.3.5 Saline lakes 82
4.2.2 Other tracers in water balance studies of lakes 84
4.2.2.1 Radioactive isotopes 84
4.2.2.2 Dissolved salts 85
4.3 Tracing of water and pollutant movement in lakes and reservoirs 85
4.3.1 Quantifying ventilation rates in deep lakes 86
4.3.2 Identifying leakages from dams and surface reservoirs 88
4.3.3 Quantifying lake water - groundwater interactions 90 5 RESPONSE OF SURFACE WATER SYSTEMS TO CLIMATIC CHANGES 93
5.1 Impact of climatic changes on the isotopic composition of precipitation 93
5.2 Climatic changes of the input function 94
5.3 Climatic changes stored in lake sediments 96 REFERENCES 99 LITERATURE 109 IAEA PUBLICATIONS 111 CONSTANTS 114 SUBJECT INDEX 115
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